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HYDROGEN ENERGY and HYDROGEN ECONOMY

HYDROGEN Fuel Cell Motor

In a general sense, this term means the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier, i.e. as a medium for energy manipulation. In that sense, hydrogen has significant advantages over electricity, which is the most widespread energy carrier today. More precisely, hydrogen energy is the chemical energy stored in hydrogen.

Hydrogen economy is an integrated system of the global economy based on hydrogen as an energy carrier, which includes the production, transport, distribution and use of hydrogen energy.

Today’s economy is mainly based on electricity as a carrier, so it could be called the ‘electric economy’.

This is an attempt to highlight the idea of using hydrogen energy and its potential in meeting the energy needs of societies in the future.

Hydrogen energy is not yet used on a large scale. It is a concept that is thought to reach its full significance after the depletion (or suspension) of fossil fuels.

HYDROGEN

  • The lightest element in nature – Odorless and tasteless gas – It is both a fuel and a chemical – Flammable and explosive.
  • Hydrogen is an element that has high chemical reactivity. It reacts with most elements making different compounds. Because of that, there is no free hydrogen in nature. It is found in the form of its compounds, the most important of which is water.
  • Thus, it is not an energy raw material, but an energy carrier that must be produced from other materials using energy.
  • The most important raw material for its production is water, although other natural materials can also be used, e.g. hydrocarbon fuels. However, the amount of water on Earth is unlimited, it is cheap, and the appropriate production methods are relatively simple, although they are energy demanding. Water is a “hard” molecule and a large amount of energy is required to break it down.
  • In this way, part of the spent energy is stored in hydrogen, so that it is also a medium for energy storage.
  • Hydrogen is an environmentally friendly fuel (provided it is produced using clean energy), whether it is used to generate heat or electricity. Besides ENERGY, the only product it generates is WATER: H2  +  ½O2  →  H2O.

ABUNDANCE OF SOME CHEMICAL ELEMENTS (wt%)

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe, but not on Earth!

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION

NATURAL SOURCES OF GASEOUS HYDROGEN ARE NEGLIGIBLE.

The type of energy used and the production processes determine the type of hydrogen obtained. We can speak of at least three types of hydrogen:
GREY, BLUE, and GREEN.

Overview of hydrogen production methods according to the types of primary energy used.

Water, like any other compound, can be directly decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen at sufficiently high temperatures. However, since it is a very stable molecule, its complete dissociation would require extremely high temperatures. For illustration, even at 3000 °C the degree of water vapor decomposition would be only about 35%, and achieving and maintaining such a temperature under industrial conditions is difficult.

Therefore, various methods are being developed to decompose water at much lower temperatures, up to about 1000 °C. These include chemical decomposition (CD) based on fossil fuels, low-temperature processes—among which low-temperature water electrolysis (LTWE) is particularly important—as well as several high-temperature technologies still under development, such as high-temperature water electrolysis (HTWE), and thermochemical water-splitting cycles (TcWSC). These last two technologies are considered highly promising for future large-scale industrial production, for which the necessary high-temperature heat can be supplied either by specific nuclear reactors or by solar concentrators.

Brief descriptions of the main technologies used for water splitting can be accessed by clicking the links provided on the right.

There are several ways to produce hydrogen by splitting water using fossil fuels, but the technologies based on chemical decomposition are of the greatest industrial importance.

It should be noted that these methods yield grey hydrogen, priced at 1–2.1 $/kg, and blue hydrogen, priced at 1.5–2.9 $/kg.

The distinctive feature of these renewable energy sources is that they generate electricity directly, which enables the production of (green) hydrogen. This primarily refers to electrolytic water splitting—a well-established electrochemical technology capable of producing high-purity hydrogen (up to 99.9%) in a single processing step—for which two main approaches exist: LTWE and HTVE (see bellow). The electrical energy used for electrolysis may, of course, also come from fossil-fuel power plants, where CO₂ emissions are unavoidable, as well as from nuclear power plants, which do not produce such emissions.

Green hydrogen is relatively expensive, with a current price of about 3.6–5.8 $/kg, although this cost is expected to fall significantly in the future as technology advances.

In addition, these reactors can be engineered to deliver very high temperatures. Such systems—particularly Very High Temperature Reactors (VHTR)—are exceptionally well suited for producing green hydrogen using high-temperature technologies, such as HTWE and TcWSC. For this reason, these technologies are important for meeting the goals of the global Nuclear Hydrogen Initiative (NHI).

HYDROGEN is both a Fuel and a Chemical!

Therefore, its application is possible in a number of areas:

  • for direct heat generation,
  • for direct production of electrical energy in fuel cells,
  • Due to the great advantages that fuel cells have over other ways of producing electricity from hydrogen, they play a key role in hydrogen energy concepts,
  • as an industrial chemical or raw material.

HYDROGEN ISOTOPES and their importance for the ENERGY SECTOR

Abundance in nature: 99.985 %.
Main raw materials for production: WATER.
Production methods: There are several methods, but the most promising for large scale production in the future will be high-temperature electrolysis and thermochemical cycles.
Uses: FUEL, ENERGY CARRIER, chemical …

Abundance in nature: 0.015 %, or one D-atom per 6,500 hydrogen atoms.
Raw materials for production: WATER.
Production methods: chemical exchange, distillation, electrolysis and their combinations.
Uses: NEUTRON MODERATOR IN NUCLEAR FISSION (heavy water – D2O) REACTORS, POSSIBLY A FUEL COMPONENT IN FUSION THERMONUCLEAR REACTORS, TOGETHER WITH TRITIUM.

Abundance in nature: It is a radioactive isotope of cosmogenic origin, which has a half-life of 12.3 years. Accordingly, its concentration is T : H = 1 : 1018. Thus, the total amount of T on Earth is only 3.5 kg.
Production method: From lithium (Li) isotopes via nuclear reactions.
Uses: As a tracer in biochemical processes, as a source of light for safety signs, for monitoring of groundwater flows and, in the future, as a FUEL COMPONENT IN FUSION THERMONUCLEAR REACTORS.

Non-Energy Uses – HYDROGEN as a Raw Material

  • Ammonia Synthesis
  • Synthesis of Methanol
  • Direct Reduction of Iron Ore
  • Refinery Hydrogenation
  • Coal Gasification
  • Nickel Manufacturing
  • Glass Manufacturing
  • Pharmaceutical Industry
  • Semiconductor Manufacturing
  • Generator Cooling
  • Argon Purification
  • Meteorology

Hydrogen Fuel Cell

IN FACT, THE FULL EFFICIENCY OF THE USE OF HYDROGEN FUEL CELLS IS ACHIEVED THROUGH ADEQUATE ENERGY CONCEPTS. THE TYPE OF CONCEPT DEPENDS ON THE NEEDS AND POSSIBILITIES OF USING HYDROGEN ENERGY.

The picture below shows one of a number of possible concepts. It is quite specific because, in addition to being one of the ways to manipulate hydrogen energy, it also takes into account hydrogen isotope effects.

Energy Storage using Hydrogen – The Principle of a Reversible Power Plant

  • This concept is a combination of energy manipulation in the (electrical) energy system with the help of hydrogen as a medium, for its STORAGE in periods of reduced consumption, and with the use of water electrolysis and fuel cells.
  • In periods of increased demand, the energy stored in hydrogen is converted into electricity in fuel cells and returned to the system.
  • In this way, the CYCLING OF ENERGY takes place. The idea is based on the principle of REVERSIBLE POWER PLANT.
  • Of course, due to unavoidable losses during cycling, the amount of output energy is less than the amount of input. These losses, together with the costs of transport and storage, are the dominant contributors to the cost of storage.
  • The transformation of one compound into another leads to the so-called ISOTOPE EFFECT, i.e. to a change in the ratio of isotope concentrations.
  • Here, the electrolyzer and fuel cell play the roles of ISOTOPE SEPARATION UNITS.
  • Thus, electrolysis converts water (as an input stream) into hydrogen (and oxygen), whereby the outgoing hydrogen, as a less dense phase, is depleted in the deuterium isotope (D), while the water remaining in the electrolyte is enriched. A similar thing happens during the transformation of hydrogen into water in the fuel cell.
  • By multiple electrolysis of such an electrolyte, pure HEAVY WATER (D2O) can be obtained as a by-product, which reduces energy storage costs.

A futuristic view of hydrogen energy

As mentioned earlier, hydrogen can be produced using any type of primary energy. Once generated, it is stored temporarily, serving as a buffer between production and consumption and contributing to overall system stability. When energy is needed, hydrogen can be transported through gas pipelines to urban areas, where it may be used to produce electricity and heat or serve as fuel for various transport systems. In smaller or decentralized systems, hydrogen can also be delivered by trucks, trains, ships, and other transport modes.

FOSSIL ENERGY

  • Fossil energy is defined as energy obtained by burning fossil fuels in air (or pure oxygen) to produce heat. This thermal energy can then be used in various ways—for heating residential and industrial spaces, supporting technological processes in different industries, generating steam to drive turbines in thermal power plants (see Figure), powering internal combustion engines commonly used in transportation, or driving gas turbines in jet aircraft, and more.
  • FOSSIL FUELS (https://nevara4energy.blog/energy/) were formed from ancient living organisms tens of millions of years ago. Because of their biological origin, they are carbon-rich fuels.
  • They have been used intensively to power the global economy for more than 160 years. Today, their share in the world’s total energy consumption is extremely high—over 80%
  • They have been used intensively to power the global economy for more than 160 years. Today, their share in the world’s total energy consumption is extremely high—over 80% (https://nevara4energy.blog/2022/10/25/world-energy-needs/).
  • When burned, the carbon stored in these fuels returns to the atmosphere primarily in the form of carbon dioxide (CO₂), along with other greenhouse gases and harmful substances such as mercury (Hg), sulfur (S), and others. As previously noted https://nevara4energy.blog/2023/10/23/climate-changes/,these emissions are responsible for climate change driven by the global warming of our planet.

TO BE CONTINUED

CLIMATE CHANGES

CLIMATE CHANGES ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF ENERGY PRODUCTION FROM FOSSIL FUELS.

COP30 – Brasil AMAZONIA, UN Climate Conference Belém 2025

COP29 – UN Climate Conference BAKU (Azerbaijan)

A deal has been agreed – It calls on all countries ‘to move away from the use of fossil fuels – but not to phase them out’.

118 countries signed a renewable energy pledge to triple the world’s green energy capacity to 11,000 GW by 2030, thereby, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels in generating energy.

Twenty-two countries have expressed their multilateral commitment to triple nuclear energy generation by 2050, to provide one-third of global electricity to come from nuclear reactors.

Leaders Announce Nuclear Energy Summit for 2024.

These changes occur due to the so-called Greenhouse Effect.

What Is the Greenhouse Effect?

Our planet receives energy from the Sun mostly as ultraviolet (UV), visible (V) and infrared (IR) radiation. About 70% of that energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface, while the rest is reflected into the Cosmos. The absorbed part warms up the surface temporarily. During the night that energy is emitted from the surface into the outer space in the form of infrared (thermal) radiation. One part of it is absorbed by IR active gases (greenhouse gases) close to the Earth’s surface and remains trapped in the atmosphere. In this way the atmosphere acts as a warming blanket that allows the average temperature of the Earth’s surface to be significantly higher than it would be without this mantle. It is the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process of crucial importance for the existence of life on Earth. Without it, the average annual temperature of the Earth’s surface would be about -18 ºC, instead of 14.2 ºC, as it was in the mid-twentieth century (see diagram), before the steep increase, which occurred due to the increase of concentrations of gases with the greenhouse effect. That increase is more than the Earth could absorb. It makes the Earth’s „blanket“ thicker, which leads to so-called global warming. Unfortunately, it still happens.

More greenhouse gases means a warmer Earth.

Greenhouse Gases (GHG)

Earth’s atmosphere contains two types of gases:

  • Homonuclear gases, those whose molecules are composed of the same atoms (nitrogen-N2, 78%, and oxygen-O2, 21%), which are the main components of the Earth’s atmosphere and which are not active in terms of absorbing IR radiation (heat);
  • Heteronuclear gases – their molecules are composed of different elements and are therefore IR active: carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases. Regardless of the fact that their concentrations in the atmosphere are very low, they have a huge effect on the climate. All of them are of natural origin with the exception of fluorinated gases.
  1. Carbon dioxide-CO2 is created in various processes on Earth and is continuously exchanged among land, water, atmosphere and living organisms, but it is also created as a product of human activities, especially from the combustion of fossil fuels.
  2. Water vapor-H2O enters the atmosphere in different ways, mainly from oceans and other water reservoirs. It is in constant equilibrium with liquid water on Earth. It is also created in the processes of burning some fossil fuels (oil and natural gas). However, its concentration in the atmosphere is not a function of those processes, as is the case with other greenhouse gases. It is mainly determined by temperature: warmer air – more water vapor. Since the increase in the temperature of the atmosphere is still small, regardless of global warming, it can be considered that its concentration is relatively constant.
  3. Methane-CH4 is a gas with powerful greenhouse potential. It enters the atmosphere from various processes in nature, such as rotting, processes in wetlands, animal digestion, etc. as well as from the exploitation of natural gas, which we use as a source of energy, and which is mainly composed of methane.
  4. Nitrous oxides-N2O are released from agriculture, burning of fossil fuels, etc.
  5. Fluorinated gases (hydrofluorocarbons-HFCs, perfluorocarbons-PFCs, nitrogen trifluoride-NF3, and sulfur hexafluoride-SF6) are artificial chemicals. Therefore, their production, usage and release into the atmosphere can be more easily controlled. Their concentrations are very low, but they have huge worming potential.

Global GHG emission is currently over 51 billion tons of carbon dioxide-equivalents per year!!!

Global Warming Potentials

Greenhouse gases, after entering the atmosphere, persist in it for different periods of time, which are a function of their chemical stability under atmospheric conditions. These periods are usually expressed through a parameter called lifetime.
Thus, carbon dioxide is a compound that is chemically very stable, which is why it constantly accumulates, especially if there is a global emission that is well above natural limits.
Other greenhouse gases have finite lifetimes.
The ability of greenhouse gases relative to carbon dioxide to absorb IR radiation is expressed through a parameter called Global Warming Potential (GWP). It is defined as a number showing how many times a gas is more effective in causing global warming over a period of time (usually 100 years) than carbon dioxide, which is taken as reference (GWP100 = 1). In other words, this parameter shows how many times more energy a gas will absorb than carbon dioxide for the same emitted mass over a period of 100 years.
CONCLUSION – Carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas with the lowest GWP100, but its emission and total amount in the atmosphere significantly exceed those of other gases.
WHICH GAS HAS THE BIGGEST IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGE?
That influence is a function of the amount of each GH gas in the atmosphere and the effect corresponding to its share. An analysis that takes this into account shows that carbon dioxide is dominant, although it is the “weakest” of all GH gases. Namely, CO2 is responsible for 66% of global warming. It is followed by methane, which accounts for about 15%. The rest of almost 20% of GW is the contribution of the remaining group of GH gases.

SAVE THE PLANET

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS by GAS

PARAMETERS RELATED to GLOBAL WORMING for greenhouse gases – Lifetime and GWP100

GLOBAL ANNUAL CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSION.

CONCENTRATION of CARBON DIOXIDE in EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE since the beginning of the new era. – It is now at the level of 420 ppm.

GLOBAL GHG EMISSIONS PER YEAR from the beginning of the industrial era

CONCENTRATION RATIOS OF MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES OVER TIME.

EARTH’s SURFACE TEMPERATURE CHANGES since the beginning of the industrial era.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy in the broadest sense originates from the transmutations of the atomic nuclei of a chemical element into the nuclei of other elements, either through the processes of radioactive decay or nuclear reactions.

In fact, nuclear energy is the energy that comes from the fission of atomic nuclei, allowing us to produce energy at an industrial scale.

At the same time, nuclear fusion has an energy potential even higher than that of fission, but it has not yet been brought to commercial exploitation, despite enormous research and technical efforts.

One of the most important nuclear terms is related to the concept of isotopes.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different masses due to the different number of neutrons in their nuclei. Their behavior in many processes shows small but visible differences. This fact enables the separation of isotopes, i.e. concentrating one isotope in a mixture by removing others.

It is of crucial importance for the production of essential materials for nuclear energy.

Useful Links

FISSION

FACTS ABOUT NUCLEAR FISSION

  • In the usual sense, nuclear fission is a type of nuclear reaction in which a heavy atomic nucleus, when hit by a neutron, splits into two lighter nuclei (fission products). Different nuclei of an isotope can be split in different ways. All resulting nuclei are radioactive.
  • A huge amount of energy is released – about 200 MeV per fission in the case of uranium fission. That means that the energy density is EDFIS ≈ 79 400 000 МЈ/kg U.
  • On average, up to three neutrons are released per fission.
  • Not every atomic nucleus will undergo fission with high efficiency, but only the nuclei of certain isotopes of some chemical elements, called fissile isotopes.
  • Those isotopes are uranium-235 (naturally occurring – 0.7% in natural U), uranium-233 (artificial, made from thorium-232), and plutonium-239 (artificial, made from uranium-238 – 99.3% in natural U).
  • The production of artificial fissile isotopes from their naturally occurring non-fissile parents is usually achieved through the conversion of fuel using so-called breeder reactors. These reactors can create more fissile material than they consume.

FUSION

FACTS ABOUT THERMONUCLEAR FUSION

  • The only fusion of all investigated to date, which has the potential to become a commercial method for energy production, is D-T fusion, because it has the highest (although still low) efficiency, the lowest temperature threshold (about 100 million degrees Celsius), releases a relatively large amount of energy (17.6 MeV per fusion – EDFUZ ≈ 679 000 000 МЈ/kg D-T), raw materials for fuel production are available.
  • Since extremely high temperatures are necessary for fusion to occur, it is commonly called thermonuclear fusion.
  • Although it is a seemingly simple reaction, its use is quite far from industrial level (at least several tens of years), despite the great scientific, technical, and financial efforts invested in its development.
  • Fuel for the fusion reactor is a Deuterium-Tritium (1:1) mixture. DEUTERIUM (D) is a naturally occurring, stable, heavy isotope of hydrogen. Its concentration in nature is about 0.015 %. The raw material for its production is water. TRITIUM (T) is a super-heavy, radioactive isotope of hydrogen. Total amount of T on Earth is about 3.5 kg, thus it must be produced, and it is produced by neutron reactions from LITHIUM.

Nuclear raw materials

ENERGY RAW MATERIALS – How long will they last

An easy way to roughly estimate how long an energy fuel will last is to divide the proved reserves by the current annual production (consumption). The global data are given below together with the results obtained. However, it does not mean that these estimates will be fully valid in the future. Proved reserves, and especially consumption, will be affected by many factors, such as prices, new technologies, the increase in per-capita energy consumption due to living standard rise, world population growth, climate change, etc.

FOSSIL

FACTS ABOUT FOSSILS

  • COAL – WILL LAST UP TO 140 YEARS.
  • Coal is much more homogeneously distributed throughout the world than the other two fissile fuels. More than a hundred countries have their own productions.
    • Total world proved reserves in 2020 (tonnes) : 1,074,108 million.
    • Total world annual production in 2020 (tonnes) : 7,732 million.
  • OIL – WILL LAST UP TO 54 YEARS.
    • Total world proved reserves in 2020 (barrel) : 1732.4 billion.
    • Annual production in 2020 (barrel) : 32,300 million.
  • NATURAL GAS – WILL LAST UP TO 50 YEARS.
    • Total world proved reserves in 2020 (cubic meter): 188,100 billion.
    • Total world annual production in 2020 (cubic meter) : 3861.5 billion.

NUCLEAR

FISSION

URANIUM STORY

URANIUM HAS BEEN A MAJOR PLAYER AND KEY NUCLEAR MATERIAL FROM THE VERY BEGINNING OF THE NUCLEAR ERA IN 1896 UNTIL TODAY.

  • Total world proved resources in 2019 (tonnes) : 6 147 800;
  • Total world annual production (from mines) in 2020 (tonnes) : 47 731.

THE OPERATION OF ALMOST ALL POWER REACTORS IN THE WORLD IS CURRENTLY BASED ON THE FISSION OF URANIUM-235.

  • Taking that fact into account, a simple calculation (indicated above) shows that uranium would last up to 130 YEARS.
  • However, the expected increase in U prices from conventional sources will increase commercial reserves by about 7,600,000 tU, which means that uranium would last for about 200 YEARS.
  • In addition to that, considering non-conventional sources (phosphate fertilizers, black shale, coal ash, nuclear weapons, depleted uranium, etc.) uranium could last about 300 YEARS all together.
  • The concentration ratio of naturally occurring uranium isotopes is 238U/235U ≈ 140. If only one third of 238U was converted into 239Pu, this would mean at least 10,000 YEARS of global uranium reserves left. PLUS THORIUM.

THORUM

  • Thorium occurs in nature as a monoisotopic element (232-Th).
  • It is slowly entering the nuclear complex and its importance is now significantly lower than that of uranium. Numerical data on its deposits, production and application are reduced to estimates and are insufficiently reliable.

IMPORTANT – THORIUM IS THREE TIMES MORE ABUNDANT THAN URANIUM IN THE EARTH’S CRUST.

FUSION

DEUTERIUM

  • Unlimited reserves (water). This isotope has been produced industrially (as heavy water – D2O) for decades.

TRITIUM

  • Must bi produced from naturally occurring lithium isotopes in neutron reactions :

6Li + n → 3H + 4He      (+4,8 MeV)                             7,42 %,

7Li + n → 3H + 4He + n’     (-2,5 MeV)                      92,58 %.

LITHIUM

  • Total world proved reserves in 2020 (tonnes) : 18 955 000;
  • Total world resources in 2020 (tonnes) : 86 710 000;
  • Total world annual production (from mines) in 2020 (tonnes) : 83 070.

It follows that lithium will last up to 230 YEARS or up to 1050 YEARS , depending on whether we make the calculation using proven reserves or resources and assuming the current situation, i.e. that lithium is now mainly used for batteries, but not for fusion.

WHEN THE ERA OF FUSION APPROACHES IT IS CERTAIN THAT ALL ESTIMATES WILL BE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT.

WORLD ENERGY NEEDS

CONCLUSION NOTES

NOTE-1: The share of electric energy in total energy consumption globally is slightly above 15%. However, people often have the impression that it is a much higher percentage.

NOTE-2: In the future, the share of renewable sources and nuclear energy will be significantly increased, while energy from fossil fuels will decrease due to a) resource depletion, and b) necessity of reducing green house gas emissions. The latter is called ENERGY TRANSITION.